Theorists - Language difference between the sexes

Robin Lakoff - deficit approach (1975) on women:

•  Women use 'empty adjectives'
• They tag questions to show uncertainty 'that's a nice top isn't it'
• More polite forms than men, they use more euphemisms.
• The more frequent use of hedges 'you know' 'like' 'sort of'
• Precise colour terms 'Jade' instead of 'green', 'Ruby' instead of 'red'
• Weak expletives 'Oh dear!', 'Golly gosh'
• Intensifiers 'so'
• Questioning intonation in declarative statements/mitigated directives (imperatives)/modals

Peter Trudgill - Women use more received pronunciation and more non standard forms (informal language).
His research was supported by Dale Spencer - Men tend to use non standard forms as a meaning of social bonding with the opposite sex (covert prestige)


Jenny Cheshire - Boys converge towards the vernacular as a shared show of linguistic and social solidarity


Jennifer Coates - difference approach (1989) on women:

• Women = cooperative
• This goes against Lakoff's theory as she explains why women tend to be more informal.

Pilkington (1992) - Supports Coates and says that women are collaborative (positive politeness strategies)


Debborah Tannen - Criticised studies - It is ignoring the important issue of power and in some cases making assertions and generalisations based on minimal research evidence.